Topic 3: Science And Technology In Development – General Studies Notes Form 5 & 6
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Development cannot be realized without science and technology. Science and technology play a great role in many sector of the economy such as agriculture, industry, environmental conservation (management), tourism, transport and communication and so forth. These are normally interlinked and triggers to national development.
This chapter is designed to show how science and technology lead to development, evolution of science and technology in Tanzania in perspective, role of science to man, transfer of science and technology and issues pertaining science and technology in sustainable development in Tanzania.
Meaning for the concept of science and technology
Science
Science is the concept which means “know why”. In very comprehensive term science can be defined as systematic coordinated and organized body of knowledge derived from accurate empirical method, experimentation and observation. It can also be perceived as processes that involve the extraction of facts through empirical methods of laboratory investigation and observation.
Technology
In ordinary term technology means “know how” while science knowledge and skills about something through experiment and testing of the fact in special area like laboratory. Through process of testing and experimentation theories, principles, formula and laws that govern materials discovered are developed.
Many scientists used systematic method to discover various theories, and laws which are used in science disciplines such as mathematics, physics, biology and chemistry to date. On other hand ,technology is identified in terms of hardware and software, hardware aspects of production refer to technology embodied in machines and processes while the software of production consists of skills, know how and procedures for performing practical tasks.
Broadly, technology is conceptualized as an application of systematic acquired skills and knowledge to produce things. This acquired knowledge and skills is called science and when you apply to produce finished goods like computer, television, chemicals, calculator, and ships, missiles, bombs and cars is called technology. Therefore, when you talk about technology, science is also applied (http/www.businessenvironment.worldpress.com).With this fact on science and technology, it is seemingly that two concepts have direct relationship.
Relationship between science and technology
The concepts of science and technology are inter-dependent. Science contributes in technology at the same time technology contributes in science.
The following are relationship between them.
1. Science and technology are inter-dependent, it means that knowledge generated by the scientific enterprises contributes to development of technologies and new technology influences the scientific enterprise in determining the research problem and means employed to solve them.
2. Technological development leads to improved methods and instruments for scientific research.
3. In the other hand science and technology have influenced social development throughout history at all levels of the society. It has been used to develop socio- economic infrastructures such as school, water supply and so forth.
4. Science is said to be the generator of ideas which are scientifically approved while technology is their materials embodied in it. This means without science, technology is not sustainable and technology indicates the presence of science.
5. Science gives human being a logical framework of their physical and social world, technology equips them with tools (equipments) which assist in responding to the challenges of the world.
There is great interrelationship between science and technology. It is knowledge and skill of scientists which generate software and hardware which when transformed produces technology. But, more and more discoveries, research and experiment produced by scientific body are continuously be used by technology in producing scientific devices or tools.
Major developments in science and technology
Science and technology have evolved and develop in time perspective. This developments and evolution has been propelled by the need of the society or problems prevailing in the society like matter on innovation, research, discovery and proving some already existing laws, principles and theories.
Science can be traced during Galileo’s time. This scientist discovered that the Earth was round. He gave his hypothesis by criticizing the classical scientists who believed that the Earth was flat, the Copernicus’s discovered that it was the Earth that revolved around the sun rather the opposite way round, (Ishumi and Nyirenda, 2001:176)
Galileo and other scientists of his time had difficult time convincing the contemporary scientists that on the basis of new evidence, the earth was round. He did this by making a telescope, an instrument that he could use to observe the skies.
He also made other observation concerning the rainbow, ship coming from far distance on the sea and the shape of the sky. Afterward scientists were convinced that the world was round and that it was sun which was in the centre of the universe. This was paradigm shift in the realm of physics and astronomy.
The picture of a scientist by the name Galileo Galilee who discovered the Telescope
Some years later, Copernicus faced the same problem to convince the proponents of the Galilean theory to the new one that the Earth was not the centre of the universe and that the Earth was not the centre of the universe but the sun. Copernicus had postulated that the sun was the centre of the universe and that the earth (and other planets) went round the sun.
This was yet another new and complete radical paradigm and it took sometime for other to believe it. But today, it is accepted that, the earth is round and that it around the sun and not vice versa.
Another evolution was in the realm of atomic theory whereby a scientist by the name Dalton in 1803 came with hypothesis that an atom was the smallest; indivisible, particle of matter that could take part in chemical reaction.
Later it was challenged by revolutionary theory that the atom was, in fact, divisible and had; inside it, other particles including proton, neutrons and electrons. But other scientist by the name of Einstein in 1879 to 1955 later challenged the “normal view’’ that held electrons to be particles by proposing that, in fact, they are “waves” and hence their movement must be explained very differently from that of particles.
Schrudinger later developed an explanation of how electrons could move in the form of waves. This show that theories can be completely discarded or improved when new evidences shows that they are no longer appropriate.
Later scientists continued with discoveries and challenging of already existing principles and laws. For example ,Archimedes developed the principle of rotation, Leonard, da Vince by 1500AD studied anatomy, astronomy, botany and geology by 1628, Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin as the first biotic in 1959.
The picture of Archimedes who discovered the principle of rotation
Other recent development of science and technology includes:-
Space research, this has been done by using satellites whereby planets have been explored for the benefit of human life. Recently, the exploration has been done in moon and Mars planet. But yet space research programs have been necessitated with advancement of science and technology.
Information technology, this also a recent developed science and technology to facilitate easily communication, include use of E-mail, fax and internet (computerized electronic system communication) but also the so called cyberspace technologies have been improved which include Skype, facebook, YouTube and twitter (http./webpage.scu.edu/).
This has improved communication but also interaction among people allover the world. But, also induces participation of people in the medium which is free of stereotype because does not consider an age, ethnicity or level of education.
Also the use of alternative sources of energy. This has developed in order to comply with the notion of sustainable use of environment. These alternative sources of energy have facilitated with science and technology. It includes use of solar energy devices which developed to be used in trapping the sun rays and converting them into solar energy.
But also the use of bio-gas technology which involves the use of gas from manure for cooking, lighting, warming and for other purposes. Use of alternative sources of energy has lessened the people depending on firewood and charcoal electricity, but also has became cheap compared to the use energy generated from oil and Hydro electric power (HEP) . Alternative source of energy like bio-gas and solar energy have aided environmental protection.
Many discovery, research and experimentations are still taking place. It is assumed in the near future many things will be discovered and challenged by scientists because human needs and problems are many. This will motivate scientists to long life doing their work.
The concept of development and sustainable development
The concept of development.
Development is the concept which is wide; it depends on the perception or circumstances on which it has been used. This circumstance on development depend whether it consider individual, national or any development. But, at very ordinary level, development means a change from backwardness or lower level to a better or advanced stage in different aspects of human life, (Bukagile, 2008:30) such a aspects may be materials, socio- cultural aspects, economic and environment.
Development is however, considered at personal/ individual and national level. When considered at individual level you think about the situation whereby a man attain certain skills and ability in production, creativity, innovation, high income, better production just mention a few. But if development is considered at national level means an increased ability of social group to control their environment such that they produce more and better goods and services to satisfy human requirement.
Thus, any development whether at individual or national level what is considered is betterments and progress from previous stage to the next stage.
Indicators of national development
Indicators of economic development are signs on which when are seen in a particular country reveals level of development attained by a given country. In other words indicators of development are measurements used to show the degree of economic development attained by a given country.
These indicators or measurements are divided into two economic development and social development as follows:-
1. Daily energy consumption
Energy consumption indicates the level of industrialization and investment level of a given country. Energy consumption also depends on the rate of science and technology which has been used to discover or innovate such energy.
It is advanced science and technology which can be used in producing alternative source of energy such as nuclear energy ,Hydro Electric power (HEP), solar energy ,coal, natural gas and thermal generated electricity. This means that in developing countries the source of energy utilization is very low compared to that used in developed countries. This is because the developed countries are industrial national and they need more power for their industries, domestic (homes) and for transportation.
2. Per capital income
Per capital income is the average income derived by the people in a given country in a given year. It is obtained by dividing the total annual income of the country by the number of people in that country. It is computed as-
3. Per capital income of a country =
Where
GNP= The sum of the market values of goods and service produced by the citizen of a country in a given period of time .GNP is obtained by summing the value of goods and services produced by citizens living outside the country. All developed countries have higher per capital incomes compared to the developed ones.
4. Labour force employed in agriculture
It refers to the number of people employed in agriculture .In developing countries especially. African countries, about 85 % of population are employed in agriculture. This is centrally to developed countries like Sweden, Denmark, USA, Britain and so forth on which only 5% engages in agriculture.
The reason for the contrast is that developing countries lacks relevant science and technology in agriculture. It is characterized with lack of agricultural experts, poor agricultural tools. Developed countries use mechanized farming methods that is why it has employed few people.
5. Life expectancy of the people of the people
It is average number of years which an individual is expected to live. In developing countries life expectancy is lower than developed countries. The situation is triggered with problems like-: Inadequate food supply and balanced diet, poor supply of clean and safe water, infant and maternal mortality, poor science and technology, living in poor unhealthy environment and so forth. In developed country this situation is managed. In case of Tanzania by 1992 life expectance of Tanzania was 52 years but recently life expectancy has reduced because of HIV/AIDS.
6. Literacy rate
This is a situation or the degree to which people in a nation can read and write. In developed countries, this degree is higher because of having resources to afford their education to the entire population. However, the situation the situation is centrally in the developing countries due to their economic backwardness.
7 .Daily food intake or supply
It is measured in calories and indicates the energy values of an average diet in a country. It is calculated by dividing the available food supply to the total population. This is lower to people in developing countries because of poverty .In developed countries the situation is centrally.
8 .Improvement on women social status in the society
In developed nations women status has been uplifted and they enjoy fair treatment like men in all aspects in national building. In developing nations it is centrally due to the fact that there is widespread of traditional beliefs, practices, oppression and humiliation of women. In developed countries therefore the degree of women empowerment is at great extent compared to developing countries.
9. Mortality rate and healthy status of the people in a given countries
In developing countries mortality rate and poor healthy especially infant mortality. This is due to high degree of poverty among the developing countries which hinder poor provision of social services, poor development in social services providers like nurses and doctors of different specialization like medicine, clinical officer, pharmacists, Dentists and surgeon. Besides healthy centers, dispensaries and hospital have not yet developed in many places .It compel the mass to travel long distances in finding healthy services .
This is due to high degree of poverty among those states such that most people cannot afford costs of medicine ,they cannot consult with some qualified doctors and so forth. Also unimproved sanitary condition of their environment which propels to diseases like cholera, diarrhea and malaria and causing death that could be controlled by cleaning our environment.
Indicators of national development indicates also the level of science and technology in a given nation or country. The country with good indicators is also developed in science and technology. That means, developed nations are also developed in science and technology because have good indicators of development and vice versa is true
b) The concept of Sustainable Development
Development being an improvement or progress from one stage to the next stage determined at individual and national level. Sustainable development is considered in the realm of environmental protection and natural resources use. Sustainable development is a pattern of resources use that aims to meet human needs while preserving the environment, so that these needs can be met not only in the present but also for generations to come. But can be scientifically defined as Development that meets the needs of present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (United Nation, 1987)
The role of sustainable development in building quality life.
Suitable development being crucial in protection of both contemporary and future generations, thus contributes in quality life for these generations.
The following is the role of sustainable development in building quality life.
1. Sustainable development improves science and technology especially in innovation of using alternative source of energy. These kinds of energy include wind energy, biogas, solar energy, hydro electric power (HEP), nuclear energy and so forth. This assists in conserving of environment through lessening global warming, deforestation and pollution which is very vital for present and future generation.
2. Sustainable development motivate people to engage in afforestation programs or creation of forest reserve and game reserves, a forestation programs and game reserves will continuously provide requirements to the present generation, but also plants and animal species which have kept in game and forest reserves will be used for future generations.
3. In agriculture sector in order to be sustainable the compose manure should be used but also matching, terracing and contour ploughing will keep the land purity and high productivity will be realized by present and future generations.
4. Natural resources should used sustainable especially that resources which are difficult to be renewable such as minerals natural gas, oil and so forth. Thus, when utilized by present generation will consider the coming generations through creation of natural resources reserves. Thus, both the present and future generation will have quality life.
5. Sustainable development practice ensures provision of furniture’s and other requirements like medicine, animal habitat and keeping the purity of environment. This is through sustainable use of environment, especially forest resources.
6. Sustainable development eliminates hunger by providing sustainable food throughout the present and future generation. Food provision is through proper land use especially use of compose manure, terracing, matching, and contour ploughing. This also induces the protection of land resources for present and future generation and improves the quality of their life.
Topic 3: Science And Technology In Development – General Studies Notes Form 5 & 6
THE ROLE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN DEVELOPMENT
Science and technology is an engine for socio-economic development. It is science and technology which aid in utilization of resources, improvement of quality of goods and services produced and aid a lot in the distribution of the utilized resources to the consumers. This subtopic wills asses the role of science and technology in improvement of modern industries, provision of social services, agriculture and food.
1. Modern Industries
Industries are places where goods are manufactured. This can be industries for production of modern devices such as computers, motor vehicles, cars, ship buildings, spare parts but also electronic devices of various natures and so forth.
Science and technology play crucial role as follows:
1. Security devices for industries are produced by using science and technology. These devices include alarming devices, CCTV cameras, electricity wire, monitoring devices such as computers and camera. These ensure efficient in production but also the safety of goods produced as well as security of industries in general.
2. Transport and communication .For propelling of industries are highly in need of transport and communication. Transport and communication include telephones, internet, roads, railways and labor. These assist industries to transfer some manufactured goods from industries to customers, but also importation of raw materials from producing areas to industrial areas depends on transport and communication, but also search for customers/ markets requires communication through communication devices such as internet, telephone, and website. All of these have been granted by science and technology use.
3. Raw materials needed in industries are extracted by using science and technology. For example manufacturing industries are in need of mineral resources either iron, steel, gold, diamond and oil. To get these materials needs complicated science and technology, but also for textile industries it require agricultural products such as wool and cotton while for processing industries you need raw materials produced through mechanized agriculture. The supply of raw materials in industries in order to produce finished goods requires science and technology.
4. Industrial personnel have been produced through science and technology knowledge. These include Engineers of different specialization such as structural, civil, mechanical and chemical engineers who are highly needed in industries. These have been produced through studying science subjects and done many scientific projects. The countries which have advanced in science and technology are also advanced in industries.
2. Provision of social services
Social services include things like education (schools), health services (hospital) water supply, electricity supply, transport and communication and housing. Science and technology plays it role as follows:-
i. Education
Education can be defined as skills values knowledge and altitude attained by man from the sources. In education field science and technology play important roles as follows: – first manufacturing of learning and teaching devices such as projector, computer, audio-visual devices such as tape recorder, DVD, film, movies, microphones and so forth.
But, also science and technology offers learning and teaching materials such as books, exercise books, pens, pencil, rubber and mathematical set. Also the learning environment such as classes, blackboard/boards and offices in the learning environment is possible because of science and technology.
ii. Health Services
Science and technology have direct link with health provision. It aids a lot in provision of health services. For example some devices have been introduced in health service provision especially complicated surgery devices, body checking such as ultra sounds and x-rays which are more contemporary devices have developed by using science and technology.
Besides, medicines have been extracted by using science and technology procedures, such as research and experimentations. Experts such as doctors, pharmacists and nurses have been trained by using science and technology. It is obvious, that health services provision is inseparable from science and technology
CT SCANS the most recent instrument in health service produced by science and technology
iii. Water Supply
The process of getting water from the source to the consumer is in need of science and technology. Drilling of water, distribution and treating of water is science and technology oriented process.
iv. Electricity
This energy is in need of the sources. Science and technology is applied depending on the sources ,for example when utilized from water it need devices, but also alternative sources such as solar energy (solar panel are needed) biogas also is extracted from application of science and technology.
v. Transport and communication
Also it is part of social services. Building of infrastructure of transport and communication is in need of science and technology. Example tarmac roads, telephone lines and mobile devices have been provided by using science and technology. It is social services because induces communication among of the people, transport of agricultural products from rural areas to the urban centers and other functions.
The most recent transport facilities developed as results of science and technology, a Ship and Electric Train.
vi. Agriculture
Like other role in modern industries and provision of social services, also, can be used in agriculture. Agriculture is an activity which encompasses animal keeping and crop production. Science and technology plays these roles:- production of agricultural inputs such as tractors, mineral fertilizers, combined machine for planting and harvesting, hybridization of plants d animals for quality production, but also science and technology is used in production of fungicides/ herbicides, agricultural expects such as veterinary officers are trained by using science and technology lastly preservation and storage devices such as deep freezer, refrigerators are produced by using science and technology.
vii. Food
Food production cannot be separated from agriculture but also from science and technology. Science and technology plays a great role in beveraging and processing of food, but also the process of food preservation use scientific devices and chemicals’, also processing of food in agro-industries is done by assistance of science and technology.
The role of science and technology in sustainable development
As it has already conceptualized previously sustainable development is a notion which entails attaining of human needs from the environment by present generation without compromising the future generation to get the same needs.
Science and technology is responsible for such sustainability as follows:
1. Science and technology aid a lot in sustainable agriculture
This is possible through application of fertilizer, but also use of machine in agriculture will control traditional agriculture such as shifting cultivation and slash and burning nature of agriculture. The best way of conserving the land for the future generation will be possible. However, in other side science and technology if not checked well can adversely distort sustainable development.
2. Science and technology assists in resources use
For example, use of forest, mineral resources and others when science and technology is applied afforestation is possible but also assist much in creation of alternative source of energy such as solar energy, biogas and so forth. This reduces people demand on charcoal and firewood hence forth forest resources are protected for the coming generation.
3. Science and technology reduces environmental degradation through recycling of wastes reduces unnecessary environmental pollution and hence protect the environment for present and future generations.
4. It is science and technology which assist in controlling the population growth.
Population control is required in all process of sustainable development. This is through family planning which entails abortions, use of pills and use of condoms. These processes are scientific required measures. With population control the rate of depending on environment for agriculture, fuel demands, industries installation and just mention a few will be drastically reduced.
5. Science and technology is used in training of experts like vertenary officers’ environmental manager and environmental Engineers.
These experts engage in creation of environmental policies, vaccinations of animals, recycling of wastes and so forth. With extension of experts services through training enable sustainable development.
6. Science and technology assists in production of alternative sources of energy.
These include natural gas, wind energy, Hydro Electric Power (HEP), and bio gas. These are free from environmental pollution and deforestation. Thus, by using these sources of energy will be potential to the hitherto generations and the future.
However, science and technology, besides of assisting in sustainable development can also alter the sustainability if not checked. For example, it is advancement in science and technology which trigger environmental problem such as global warming, acidic rainfall, Environmental pollution and land degradation. This is because motivates the extension of industries and other big projects like mining and roads construction.
Role of Government in promoting development of science and technology in our country
Government is vital instrument to promote and develop science and technology base. This is because it monitors and control different sectors of the economy, not only that, but also science and technology is the source of country’s development. With developed science and technology, inevitably, motivates development of industrial sector, agriculture, Small and Medium Enterprises (SME’s) and mining sector.
The following are the role of government in development of science and technology in our country:-
1. Training and education its people in science and technology.
In order to develop and promote science and technology, the government has to educate its people in science and technology. This means a lot of money is to be injected in installation of laboratories, provision of scholarship and paying for school fees for students in science programs. These will multiply some trained experts such as doctors, engineer, environmental managers, technician, teachers who will assist in promotion of science and technology.
2. Opening many schools, polytechnics and universities for science students.
Science and technology cannot be promoted if the countries have no enough schools, polytechnics and universities. Thus, the role of government is to make sure that more schools in science subjects have opened and furnished with science requirements such as books, laboratories and teachers. These schools will be the sources of scientists, colleges and polytechnics and universities.
3. Formulation of clear policy on science and technology development.
The clear policy will encourage people within the country to be innovative and inventive through adherence to the protection of intellectual property and motivating some innovators. All of these activities will encourage people to engage in scientific activities. Tanzania should draw well polices from other countries which have improved in science and technology like china, USA, Britain and Japan.
4. Motivation of scientists through providing them good salaries, good working conditions, soft loans and capital necessary for their development.
Good motivation will lessen the problem of brain drain in which many scientist normally moves across the boarder to be employed elsewhere especially in developed countries, but also in well motivating countries in Africa like Botswana and South Africa.
5. Investment of many institutes, industries, small and medium enterprises on which many scientists will be employed and offered with practical training opportunities and research.
Besides, these institutes industries and small medium enterprises will act as the consultant to the government but also will adopt, assimilate and absorb the imported science and technology, thanks to the presence of VETA colleges which deal with adaptation and a assimilation of science and technology, but also some science and technology institutes such as University of Dar es Salaam whereby recently the world Bank has injected USA $ 4million (Tsh. 6 billion) for science projects but also Sokoine University of Agriculture, Muhumbili University college of health science, Rwegalulira water resources institute, national college of Mbeya and Dar es Salaam institutes of technology, others includes center for Agricultural mechanization and rural technology, national institute of medical research, Tanzania industrial research and Development organization and Tanzania Bureau of standards. Briefly, these institutes deal with S & D, but also employment of scientists, consultations, training of scientists as well as absorption of transferred science and technology.
6. Lessening technological dependency from foreign countries.
This can be done through promoting and encouraging local technology which is appropriate to the people’s daily activities and encourage the use of products made from local craftsmen. Tanzania is endowed people with different skills such as iron smith balk clothes maker, carvers and decorators .these produces different tools which can be consumed locally and henceforth reduce dependency.
The government is very vital in the development of science and technology and disseminating it. It is through science and technology which can enable a country to develop to the high level in agriculture, mining, industries, transport, communication and information technology and others. With this regards science has to be imported, innovated and researched for the sustainable development.
Transfer of technology
Globally science and technology is uneven distributed. Others countries posses advanced science and technology, but other have rudimentary science and technology. Those countries with advanced science and technology are considered as an industrialized countries or developed countries (DC’s) but those with rudimentary technology are referred to as non- industrialized countries or lowest developed countries (LDC’s). Majority of LDCs are countries in Latin America, Africa, Pacific – Caribbean and Asia. So with that uneven distribution science has to move across territorial boundaries to other countries (with no science and technology).
Meaning of science and technology transfer.
As already noted previously, that science and technology is unevenly distributed. It means even those countries with no science and technologies do require such skills and knowledge from the sources. Transfer of science and technology means acquisition of scientific and technological know how from the source to the recipient.
The transferred science and technology is through both hardware and software. Transfer of technology is only possible when the receiving country/firm has capability to assimilate and diffuse such technology or the ability to manage the transferred technology. Many developing countries are recipients of technological transfer from developed countries or the source.
Importance of technological transfer.
Technological transfer has got several significant in the recipient countries as follows:-
1. Technological transfer promotes an indigenous technological base and technical capacity. Because, the technological vacuums and gaps are always filled with transferred science and technology.
2. Technological transfer assists in utilization of idle resources and opportunities. For example in Tanzania case ,recently the communication and information technology sector had monopoly of Tanzania Telecommunication Company Limited Company (TTCL) but, with transfer of technology in such sector many communication companies have invested but also other idle resources which were not utilized with technological transfer in agriculture, mining and transportation can be utilized by the transferred Science and Technology.
3. Lead to increase in productivity in many sector of the Economy. The transferred technology has increased both industrial and agricultural products. The use of better machines, seeds and other tools from foreign companies which are invested in recipient countries contributes in productivity increase.
4. The transferred science and technology lead to development of transport and communication. Thanks, to the presence of constructing companies of Konoike, Kajima and others in the developing countries like Tanzania have improved infrastructures especially roads.
5. It improves the provision of social services such as education and health services which include use of x-rays, computer, ultra sound and medicine. Tanzania has received science and technology is social services from Scandinavian countries under the project of DANIDA, Cuba and other western countries. It has been through aid given by developed countries to the developing countries.
6. The transferred technology has been adapted, assimilated and managed to develop some SMES (Small and Medium Enterprises), small scale industries such as SIDO (Small Industries Development Organization) and VETA, but, also some technological institutes such as Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology (DIT) and University of Dar es Salaam Engineering College which assimilates and adopt such technology. These act as consultation centers but also design some required science and technology in our environment.
However, besides of importance there are also some disadvantages such as culture distortion, neo-colonialism which is attached with its operation, motivates the environmental degradation and corruption. Thus, the transfer of science and technology should be appropriate to the recipient countries’ conditions.
Means by which science and technology is transferred.
The transferred science and technology has got channels through which it moves from the source to the recipient countries. These channels are correctively called means in which science and technology is transferred.
The following are some means by which science and technology is transferred.
1. Through training of people in other countries.
The best way of transfer of technology is through training of people by government in other countries with science and technology. These people acquire skills and knowledge (software) in which after their graduation they disseminate this knowledge in their recipient countries.
Recently in Tanzania many people in military, doctors, architectures, and engineers have trained in western countries and they have been very vital in training of scientists in different fields. But other countries like China, Indonesia, Taiwan and Malaysia used this kind of technological transfer to advance their domestic science and technology base.
2. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)
Due to globalization policies which allow free movement of capital services and labour, it has caused multinational companies to move across their boarders with their science and technological capabilities and invest in other countries especially third World countries.
These investments have been in health services, mining, energy extraction, agriculture, industries, transport and communication and information technologies. In Tanzania there is Barrick company dealing with mining, other companies are in communication field like Vodacom, Tigo, Airtel (Zain), and Zantel
3. Technical assistance.
This has been rendered by the donor’s countries. Technical assistances have been injected in many sector of the economy such as mineral processing, energy utilization, installing of imported machines, just mention a few. Technical assistance has been through importation of experts, importation of capital goods such as machine and finance.
Recently, the World Bank assisted the Energy and Water Utilities Regulatory Authority (EWURA) to boost its performance, but also the installment of health equipment at Muhimbili National hospital was done with Western technical assistance. From technical assistance science and technology is assimilated and diffused (http/ www.devex.com/)
4. Through industrial epistonage.
This means that a person in imitating without being permitted by owners of the said technology. For example there was scandal of industrial espionage of two countries on the issue of using NOKIA trade mark.
5. Through Turn key operation.
This is the process of signing the contract between the technology owners and the recipient country. This has been used in engineering field whereby the companies such as Konoike and Kajima have brought in their capital good and technology to work in many developing countries. In Tanzania case these companies have been active in building of roads, bridges and buildings.
6. Buying license of technology.
This is a situation whereby the recipient countries buy license from the source and uses it in other environment. For example, soft drink Companies such as Pepsi and Coca-cola sold their technology to other countries of the world.
7. Through imitation
This is simply copying technology from other countries for example, a country like China has been copying other country’s technology without license but has been able to acquire science and technology through copying other countries technology.
By any means of science and technology transfer, the transferred technology should be relevant, appropriate and affordable to an environment of recipient countries. If not appropriate, the transferred science and technology becomes useless for the development of recipient country.
Thr concept of relevant and appropriate technology use for a country development
For development of a country’s economy science and technology is needed, but a relevant and appropriate one. An appropriate and relevant technology is easily to fit in the environment of the recipient country. Ordinarily, the relevant and appropriate technology is kind of technology which can fit in the recipient country’s environment, but also useful and needed by the country concerned.
It is obvious that, training of experts and imported science and technology should be compatible with the country’s needs. But also, such technology will be suitable to local requirements and fit into a pattern of internally generated growth.
However, relevant and appropriate technology has these characteristics.
1. Should perform the duty and functions which is supposed or intended to do. If the technology is for development of local industries should target on intended purposes
2. Should not be expensive compared to the economy in the recipient country. The imported of science and technology should correlates with nature of the economy in the recipient country.
3. Should be easy to adopt, assimilate and diffuse. That means should not be complicated as to demand the importation of foreign experts. This will reduce dependency to the western or developed countries.
4. Should target on provision of employment and elimination of poverty. This is especially a kind of technology to be transferred and used in developing countries.
5. The relevant and appropriate technologies should safeguards and prioritize the environmental protection and management. For a country like Tanzania the appropriate technology should be that which protect environment and henceforth alter environmental problems. This is because the life of people solely, depends on environment for their socio-economic development.
6. A kind of technology which is appropriate should be such which protect culture of recipient country. If it happen that the nature of technology imported or used contributes in distortion of culture should be observed and monitored by departments concerned.
Advantages of relevant and appropriate technology.
There are some advantages derived from the relevant and appropriate technology use as follows:-
1. The appropriate and relevant technology use reduces the loop hole of corruption.
The appropriate and relevant technology use reduces corruption in the sense that the innovated or transferred science and technology meet the requirements it intend to do. For example, the appropriate and relevant technology needed in Tanzania is that of eradication of poverty through processing of agricultural products and development of rural energy production. Therefore any misallocation of technology induces corruption.
2. The use of appropriate and relevant technology assists to cut down the government expenditure.
The appropriate and relevant technology use, besides of containing corruption, also can assist in cutting down the government expenditure because finances are directed in proper channels. With this regards the country which import the relevant and appropriate technology will reduce irrelevant technologies such as outdated technology, the one coupled with corruption and the one which is not expensive. Henceforth development will be inevitable.
3. The appropriate and relevant technology enriches the science and technological base of our country.
The use of appropriate and relevant technology improve technological base through assimilating and diffusing such technology or simplifying it to fit in Tanzania environment, inevitably ,will ensure development and improve our technological base.
4. The appropriate and relevant technology use assists in utilization of idle resources
Third world countries particularly Tanzania is endowed with natural resources such as land, forest, wild life, minerals, water and human resources. With appropriate and relevant technological use the natural resources will be utilized like extraction of minerals, environmental protection, and the rural energy provision. It will consequently, lead to poverty alleviation and employment provision through improving agriculture; Small scale industries and Small and Medium Enterprises. (SME’s)
5. Appropriate and relevant technology use, profoundly protects the nation’s culture
The technology which is appropriate and relevant should comply with the environment on which it is applied, this environment must suit with culture values of the country concerned, and otherwise it won’t be relevant.
Thus, the people concerning with choosing the nature of technology to be applied and used should make sure that relevant and appropriate technology has been considered, and henceforth being responsible in protecting our national culture.
Consequences of using appropriate technology in Tanzania
There are several consequences for using appropriate technology in Tanzania as follows
1. Ensure development of our technological base i.e. the local technology, Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) and Vocational training colleges
2. Leads to lessen government expenditures especially if the used technology will meet the requirement of the recipient country.
3. The appropriate technology use lead to alleviation of poverty. In Tanzania poverty has been prioritized thus the nature of technology required is that which will assist in alleviation of poverty by improving agriculture sector.
4. Lead to development of alternative source of technology such as solar energy, wind energy and hydroelectric power energy which assist in lessening deforestation problems.
5. The appropriate technology use assist in checking the misuse of government finances. If the use of technology will suit to the country’s economy will inevitably reduce the misuse of money or eliminate the room for corruption
6. The use of appropriate technology induces the development of important sectors of development especially industries, agriculture, rural technology communication and information technologies (CIT) which are drives to the national development.
The relevant and appropriate technology use is very crucial; it is extensively assist in finding some solutions for many of our problems especially alleviation of poverty, provision of employment, development of rural technology (irrigation activities, processing industries, and development of alternative source of energy) and so forth. Thus, it is very important that the technology to be used in Tanzania should be relevant and appropriate.
ISSUES RELATED TO SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN TANZANIA
Tanzania has been engaging in development of science and technology. Some policies on science and technology have developed, which consequently led the formation of Tanzania Commission of Science and Technology. This subtopic is designed to cross check if science and technology has been developed in Tanzania, besides, will check the problems hindering the development of science and technology, problems related to transfer of science and technology, reasons for decline of our local technology and proposing some measures for the reviving and development of local technology.
Problems hindering the development of science and technology in Tanzania
There are some factors which hinder the development of science and technology, among of them some are internally caused, but others are triggered by external influences as follows-
1. Lack of clear policy or undefined policy in science and technology.
The government has not defined the nature of technology to be used or transferred in Tanzania. Thus, the country has lacked the technical know how on what kind of technology should be assimilated, adapted and imported in Tanzania.
2. Dependency syndrome
Tanzania has been subjected to the importation of technology from western countries. Dependency of the Lowest Developed Countries particularly Tanzania has been inherited since independence period. Instead of development of its own technological base it has been depending to other countries or imported science and technology.
3. Lack of motivation to scientists.
Since independence, Tanzania government has been responsible to educate many scientists, but have not been motivated with good salaries and good working conditions. These scientists include science teachers, doctors, engineers, urban planers, architects and others. Due to lack of motivation they have been running away from Tanzania looking for green pastures. Consequently, it has caused poor development in science and technology.
4. Poverty which leads to lack of enough fund.
The importation, research and development as well as training of scientists require a huge amount of money. This difficult for a country like Tanzania to develop it because of poverty inflicting it.
5. Inadequate emphasis on science subjects.
Science, subject like mathematics, physics, chemistry and biology are subjects which are the mothers of science. But there subjects are poorly taught due to lack of teaching facilities especially teachers, classes and laboratories. This makes improvement in science and technology to be poorly improved.
6. Lack of encouragement to the local technocrats.
These are people who engage mostly in local technologies especially iron smith, curving, designers of some materials such as iron, bronze and others. But also, includes others small machines which are discovered locally. These are not motivated by the government rather they are normally discouraged. Consequently, it causes poor development of our technological bases.
It seems that the factors which hinder the development of science and technology are influenced with both external and internal motives. Tanzania as a country has many challenges in the process of improving its science and technological base.
Problems related to the transfer of technology into our country.
As already noted previously, that science and technology should inevitably be transferred because of unevenly distribution between one country and other. Even if the transferred technology assists the recipient country like Tanzania in utilization of resources, improving science and technological base, improving the social services provision , just mention a few, but also are associated with problems.
The following are problems related to the transfer of technology in our country.
1. Transfer of science and technology has created the loop hole for corruption. Tanzania is one of the countries in sub-Sahara Africa with inadequate science and technology. Thus, it has been transferring science and technology in several decades in the past. But some government officials and people engaging in procurement have been transferring it on corruption bases, for examples, the scandals of buying radar and Richmond Company which was brought to generate electricity were coupled with corruption.
2. The transfer of science and technology has adversely led to distortion of culture.
Since science and technology transfer is done through several mechanisms some of these include Foreign Direct Investments (FDI) and imitation. This adversely leads to distortion of culture in the sense that the foreign companies investing in our country do not consider some cultural values of our nation.
But, also through imitation we copy some science and technology which are possibly fit in other culture but not in Tanzania culture. Henceforth, lead to the distortion of our culture.
3. The transfer of science and technology if it is not relevant and appropriate becomes burden to the tax payers.
Science and technology is very expensive, needs the country like Tanzania to dig deeply in the citizen’s pockets. When it becomes very expensive compared to the country’s economy it is therefore not appropriate or relevant.
It will cause burden and poverty to the citizen. This is in the fact that , government cuts down its expenditure on provision of social services such as education, health services, water, transport and communication and others in order to acquire such science and technology. Consequently, it leads to an increased tax to our citizen and heavily subjected to hard life.
4. Inevitably, the transfer of science and technology causes environmental degradation.
Though science and technology contributes positively in the national development, but also in other side contributes in environmental degradation. For example, the foreign direct investments have invested in mining, industries and agriculture but it has greatly motivated deforestation, environmental pollution and soil degradation. These have reported in North Mara Mines, Kahama Barrick Mines and Geita. But also, some companies such as Konoike and Jaika in their process of constructing infrastructure have caused environmental problems.
5. Transfer of science and technology causes unnecessary expenses.
There unnecessary science and technology which are transferred in Tanzania, some of them are not appropriate and relevant to be used in Tanzania, you find that it is difficult to adapt, assimilate and diffuse it. Besides, it sometimes accompanied with foreign experts who are highly paid. It therefore propels poverty to the poor country like Tanzania.
6. Transfer of science and technology has created dependency and totally decline of our local technology.
Since our capability in development of science and technology is poor the country is to rely on advanced nations in science and technology for its internal modernization. But through this, the country has suffered from dependency syndromes on which the country cannot develop own technology base. Consequently, it has caused poor decision making in internal matters instead the decision have been made by countries which are advanced in science and technology. These conditions have ruined the country’s local technologies.
Even though the transfer of science and technology in our country enhance its development in industries, agriculture and generally the utilization of resources but also ruin the country both economically, socially and politically. This is because; the transfer of science and technology cannot be isolated from problems like neo-colonialism, environmental degradation distortion of culture and just mention a few.
Reasons for the decline of local technology in Tanzania
In pre-colonial Africa majority African countries particularly Tanzania science and technology existed. This kind of technology was independent from western oriented technology. The kind of technology existed in the realm of cottage industries such as weaving, blacksmithing, pottery, wood working and jiggery plants for sugar production. Thus, Tanzania had reached at certain level of technology, before the intervention of colonialism.
During the colonialism period is when our local technology started to be interfered .This was due to the fact that many colonial policies discouraged the African oriented technologies. This was through threatening the local technocrats by chopping their hands and hanging them, though other discouragement came after independence as will be seen later.
The following are reasons for decline of local technology in Tanzania:-
1. The role of colonialism which came with discouragement policies in science and technology
At first the colonial masters discouraged the local industries through hanging and chopping hand of people who had skills in activities such as iron smiths, weaving and pottery.
2. Adaptation a strategy of import substitution industries
This depended on imported technology and expertise. The adaptation of this strategy was one of the reasons for the slow move towards the establishment of an indigenous technological capability. This caused the decline of local technology.
3. Poor policies on science and technology.
Tanzania has been subjected to poor policies. Programs have been planed but it has been poorly managed and not implemented at all. An organization which were formed to check and coordinate the formation of policy like the Tanzania national scientific research council (UTAFITI) of 1968 and 1972 as well as the Tanzania Commission for Science and Technology which was established in 1986.
These organs were to formulate policies, coordinate and promote scientific research and technology development in the country. But it lacked the human capital, finance and government support.
4. The Arusha declaration of 1967 set out to transform the process of socio-economic and political development of Tanzania.
But, one of its most striking failures of it was an inability to initiate appropriate strategies for technological development especially in agriculture. When farmers were put in collective villages in attempts to promote social and economic development, their instrument of labour were not changed. The hand hoes and Panga have remained the main instruments of production in the agriculture sector.
No investment was done to promote the development of modern agricultural tools (implements). UFI, CARMATEC and Mbeya tool implements were some of the institutions that were set up to initiate the production of farm implements to farmers. There efforts were not successful and backward technology remains a key feature of agricultural development.
5. Lack of motivation to the scientists.
Scientists in Tanzania have had been subjected to low payment/salaries, poor working condition and so forth. These includes some doctors, engineers, vetinary officers, architectures just mention a few. Consequently, it has caused these experts to run away from professions but also to move across the boarder (brain drain) looking for green pastures. It has therefore drawn experts who could assimilate, adapt and diffuse technology for our science and technological base.
Measures for the revival and development of local technology
Science and technology should be developed and revived if we need to develop our technological base.
The following are some measures which can be used in reviving our local technology.
1. Fighting with corruption in importation of science and technology. It is corruption that leads to the importation of fake and outdated or absolute technology. Consequently leads to poor technological base.
2. Channeling fund through the commission of science and technology (COSTECH) on which good policies will be designed also research on science and technology will be possible, training and upgrading our scientists will consequently improve technological bases.
3. Empowering our local craftsmen, technocratic and scientists. Our local craftsmen such as weavers, wood makers, blacksmiths but also our trained experts should be empowered by providing them education, fund and support by the government. This should go hand with hand by elimination of tax on their exports, market acquisition and research for the good produced by own craftsmen. It is through this scientists, craftsmen and technocratic on which science and technology will be developed.
4. Formation of clear defined policies on science and technology. This will be responsible for guiding and manage the process of technological development. However ,Tanzania formed its science and technology policy in 1986 through Tanzania commission for science and technology (COSTECH) though engaged in the process pertaining development of science and technology through advising the government, but yet the content of policy, the requirement of technology and generally appropriate and relevant technology needed by Tanzania was not defined.
5. Reduce technological dependency from foreign countries. This should be done through promoting and encouraging local technology which is more appropriate to the people’s daily activities, and encourage the use of products made from local technologies (indigenous craftsmen). This will compel in the building our technological capabilities.
6. To train many scientists as possible based on practical skills instead of orienting our mind on other sources such as importation of experts and copying technology. This will encourage the local scientists to improve in tools making.
Generally, Science and technology is very vital in any national development. If a country like Tanzania will invest in science and technology the possibility of poverty eradication will be granted. Besides, it will improve agricultural and industrial sector which are normally affected with poor science and technology.
It is challenge to government and its science and technological agencies like the commission of science and technology and other science and technology stakeholders to engage in research, creation of proper policies and invest in the human capital, through training and scholarship acquisition from donor’s countries in the process of improving our technological base. But this should not be isolated with elimination of corruption and proper transferring an appropriate and relevant technology.
Tanzania Commission for Science and Technology (COSTECH)
Is a parastatal organization affiliated with the government of Tanzania. It was created by an act of the Parliament of Tanzania in 1986 to replace Tanzania National Scientific Research Council. The Commission is a subsidiary institution to the Ministry of Higher Education Science and Technology.
The main functions of the COSTECH among many included:-
1. Coordinating and promoting research and technology development activities in the country.
2. Administration of research grant, maintenance of research registry and scientific information services, setting research police and creating incentive for invention and innovation.
3. To work with science and technology stakeholders through coordinating their activities toward improving science and technological base.
4. To cooperate with high learning institutions in development of learning and teaching materials
5. To advice the government on all matters pertaining on science, Technology and Innovation (STI) and their application in socio-economic development of the country.
COSTECH works with industrial Research and Development organization which include, Tanzania Industrial Research and Development Organization( TIRDO), Tanzania Engineering and Design Organization( TEMDO),Tanzania Bureau of Standard (TBS),Building research Unit ( BRU),National constructing Council (NCC) and Tanzania Industrial Studies and constructing organization( TISCO)
Also it work with Health M edical Research which includes National institute for medical research (NIMR)
Other affiliated organ which works with COSTECH is Food and Agricultural Research .This coordinates Centre for Agriculture Mechanization and Rural technology, Tropical Pesticides and Research institute (TPRI) and Tanzania Fisheries Research institute (TAFIRI).
Also it work with Energy research which coordinates Tanzania Radiation Commission (NRC), Social Science Research and National Social Welfare and training Institute
But also COSTECH work with environmental matter especially environmental research. It cooperates with National Environmental Management council (NEMC).
The National Science and Technology policy for Tanzania
The science and technological policy of Tanzania was issued in June 1985.It was issued in order to diagnose science and Technology problems in Tanzania and provide a view of development in science and technology over the next few years.
The main functions of science and technology policy are as follows:-
1. It gives objectives for specific sectors.
2. It stresses the need to train high quality scientists and technologists.
3. It stresses on ability to monitor the importation of foreign technologies and the popularization of science and technology in the society.
4. It put emphasis on the need to develop indigenous technologies and strengthen research and development ( R&D) institution and advocate a stronger linkage system between users and developers of the technologies .In this matter agriculture was given prominence in the policy document and n addition it identified specific areas for research and development.
5. It stresses the importance of allocation adequate funds for scientific research and proposed target to be used for science and technology activities.
Problems of science and technology policy of Tanzania
1. The policy is not defining clearly its areas of consideration, for example the document makes reference to the encouragement of local expertise but, only few areas of expertise have been categorically specified as needing attention. These include design, building, construction and production of raw materials. But other experts in other specialization are not mentioned in this policy, these include Mechanical engineering and production management.
2. There is also lack of critical understanding and awareness of the dynamics of International environment and influence on the development of science and technology in Tanzania. To add up there are no safeguards made by the policy document to respond to rapidly changing International environment. This changing environment includes the role played by free market which requires non governmental intervention in the development of science and technology and the government is moving out of direct management of industry and business.
3. The policy is too general that no place in it where there acknowledgement of the existing science and technology and what kind of technology is needed in Tanzania environment. Science and technology policy can prove purposeful only if, is dynamic and flexible enough to respond on requirements of changing condition.
4. Science and technology policy is not identifying the type of science and Technology needed in Tanzania.
It is obviously that, the national science and Technological policy as well as the Commission of Science and Technology are coupled with problems. These hinder effective development of science and technology in Tanzania. Besides, these organs have been formed on political basis not genuinely for development of science and technology in Tanzania.
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. (a) What is science and technology.
(b) Prove that science and technology have close relationship
2. Identify the relationship between science and technology
3. Discuss the evolution of science and technology
4. Underdevelopment of science and technology is internally motivated rather than external. Discuss.
5. Identify the contemporary development in science and technology.
6. (a) what is development
(b) How science and technology triggers development
7. Identify the contribution of science and technology in food production and agriculture.
8. (a) what is sustainable development?
(b) Show the contribution of sustainable development in building quality life.
9. What is the role of science and technology in sustainable development?
10. Science and technology contributes a lot in socio-economic development. Discuss.
11. Account for poor science and technological base in Tanzania
12. What are advantages of use an appropriate and relevant technology in Tanzania?
13. In the course of development of science and technological base, the government is responsible. Prove with examples.
14. What are problems associated with transfer of science and technology
15. What are the reasons of decline of our local technology?
16. What are the functions of the commission of science and technology in Tanzania?
17. Identify the consequence of using appropriate and relevant technology in Tanzania environment
18. The FDI contributes a lot in the environmental problems. In the light of this statement support it with examples.
19. Suggest strategies for reviving our local Technology.
