Topic 3: The People Of African Origin In The New World – History 1 Notes Form 5 and 6

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The new world in this context refers to the United States of America and the Caribbean islands were most of the people of African origin were found.

The people of African origin in the new world were a product of Trans-Atlantic slave trade, this trade led to the exportation of many Africans in the form of slaves to America to provide cheap labor on plantations and mines.

The origin or genesis of the African people in the new world/slavery

1. Mercantilism

This was an economic system, which involved conducting trade overseas searching for gold and silver. Mercantilism led to the rise of the Trans – Atlantic slave trade that was a trading activity, which involved Africa, Europe and America. During this trade, millions of Africans were shipped to America to provide cheap labor on plantations.

2. Booming capitalist agriculture.

During mercantilism European capitalist’s established different plantations of coffee, sugarcane, cotton and tobacco, which called for massive supply of cheap labor, thus the supply of white labor was getting difficult compared to the expanding needs of the plantations, therefore called for importation of slaves from Africa.

3. Industrial revolution in Europe.

Due to the industrial revolution, there was a need to expand home markets thus the merchants and the ruling class in Europe were afraid of under population; this prompted the campaign against the use of white labor. The crisis called for massive importation of slaves from Africa to provide cheap labor on plantations.

4. Africans slaves were cheap.

It‟s on record that money paid to a white labor for ten years could procure an African slave for life. In addition a white worker was expected to acquire land at the end of the contract while an African slave was prevented by law from owning land. This condition necessitated the use of African labor thus the existence of people of African origin in the new world.

5. Discovery of maritime technology.

This acted as a pushing factor for Africans to be taken as slaves. Maritime technology eased transportation and guided the merchants to locate Africa. Thus be in possession to transport people of African origin to the new world.

6. Inability of the indigenous people.

Initially the Europeans were using Native Americans and red Indians to provide cheap labor on the plantations and mining centers but these later died in huge numbers due to plague. This called for an importation of African slaves, which contributed to the existence of people of African origin in the new world.

7. Discovery of the new world.

The discovery of the new world by Christopher Columbus in 1492 contributed to the existence of people of African origin in the new world. The discovery led to the establishment of plantations and mining centers that demanded for cheap labor, which called for importation of African slaves.

PROBLEMS FACED BY THE PEOPLE OF AFRICAN ORIGIN IN THE NEW WORLD

The people of African origin faced various problems, which were caused by the development of capitalism. The European maintained certain conditions to ensure the survival of capitalism at the expense of the people of African origin. These problems are classified into political, economic and social aspects.

A: POLITICAL PROBLEMS

1. Denied the right to vote.

The people of African origin were denied the right to vote, various measures were put that made difficult for the black people to vote. The qualifications to vote included one should have attained a certain level of income and had a grandfather who was eligible to vote.

2. Denied equal representation.

People of African origin were denied equal representation in the government. To make matters worse; they were even denied the right to run for political office hence they had no representatives in the government.

3. Denied the right to make decisions.

People of African origin were denied the right to make decisions in the new world; they lost all their rights as human beings hence they could not even make decisions regarding their own lives.

B: ECONOMIC PROBLEMS

1. Denied the right to own land.

People of African origin were denied the right to own land, they were forbidden by law to own land or any other property. This rendered them to be only domestic servants in the new world.

2. Poor working conditions.

People of African origin were exposed to poor working conditions on the plantations owned by the whites. They signed contracts with planters were they agreed to offer labor on conditions similar to those of slavery. On the plantations, people of African origin were more often punished by the planters and were paid low wages and in some cases they were not paid at all.

C: SOCIAL PROBLEMS

1. Racial discrimination

The people of African origin were subjected to racial discrimination in all aspects of life. Laws were established which restricted people of African origin to live in separate and inferior sections of hospitals, cemeteries and toilet facilities.

2. Education

The people of African origin faced different problems in education system. There was segregation in the education system whereby black people were denied admission in secondary schools, colleges and universities because of their race.

3. Denied the right to marry.

Black people were denied the right to marry and be married. The capitalist believed that marriage would hinder the exploitation of African labor since it would become expensive to maintain the black people and their families. Laws were also established that prohibited relations between a black and a white man.

Due to the problems; the people of African origin began to wage struggles for equality, economic power and civil rights. The development of class consciousness among the people of African origin was caused by numerous factors that contributed to the rise of black American nationalism.

Topic 3: The People Of African Origin In The New World – History 1 Notes Form 5 and 6

BLACK AMERICAN NATIONALISM

The origin of black American nationalism was the exploitation and oppression to which the black people were subjected. This situation forced the black people to identify themselves as the group apart.

Black American nationalism manifested itself in different forms such as back to African movement, pan African movement and the civil rights movement.

OBJECTIVES OF A BACK TO AFRICA MOVEMENT

1. Liberate people of African origin.

The movement wanted the people of African origin to be free from exploitation and oppression by shipping them back to Africa. The supporters of this movement argued that the people of African origin cannot attain economic and political freedom in the USA thus the solution was to go back to Africa.

2. Formation of a strong African state.

The movement aimed at forming the strong African state which would restore, respect and freedom to the people of African origin, the supporters of the movement claimed that the formation of a strong African state will lead to the elevation of African race.

3. Empower the people of African origin.

The movement aimed at empowering the black people economically by establishing economic ventures and creating employment for the millions of people of African origin that were living in poverty.

4. Raising nationalism in Africa.

The people of African origin (back to Africa movement) aimed at raising nationalism in Africa. It wanted to unite all the black people in both the new world and Africa to fight against oppression, exploitation and colonialism.

5. Regain fundamental rights.

The movement also aimed at bringing unity and solidarity among the people of African origin. The black people had been denied the right to education, right to freedom of expression and the right to marry and own property.

6. Cultivate a sense of unity.

The movement also aimed at bringing unity and solidarity among the people of African origin. Unity was an important ingredient in the struggle to regain the fundamental rights of the people of African origin.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE BACK TO AFRICA MOVEMENT

1. Formation of the Universal Negros Improvement Association (UNIA).

The UNIA aimed at calling all people of African origin to establish universal nationhood. The association wanted to emancipate people of African origin from exploitation and oppression.

2. Launched a shipping agency.

The back to Africa movement undertook intensive back to Africa campaign and launched a shipping agency called “black star shipping line” which shifted the emancipated slaves back to Africa for example Liberia and sierra Leone.

3. Plan to form a strong African state.

The movement advocated for the need to form a strong African state which would give the people of African origin the freedom from exploitation and oppression, this centered on the formation of African unity which laid the foundation of the organization of African unity.

4. Formation of the African republic.

The back to Africa movement established the African republic whereby it opened large scale capitalist programs such as hotels and restaurants. These investments provided employment opportunities to the black people who had been denied employment.

5. Removal of inferiority complex of the Africans.

The movement promoted awareness and consciousness among the African race and removed the inferior complex which most Africans had. Through various publications and civil rallies many people of African origin got sensitized and begun to identify their position and their role to play in the dominant white society.

6. Unity

The back to Africa movement promoted black solidarity among the black people in the new world and in Africa. Unity was very crucial to the people of African origin were to gain their fundamental right.

7. Hindrances to the back to Africa movement

There were so many hindrances that faced the back to Africa movement, these included the following

8. Disunity

There were some people of African origin who preferred to remain in America because they were not so certain to which part of Africa the movement intended to take them. This complicated the interests of the movement.

9. A campaign of terror

A campaign of terror was unleashed against the members of the universal Negro improvement association all over the state. Many of the members were thrown out of their jobs and the key organizers were killed. This was a serious setback to the cause of the movement.

10. Role of Britain and the USA.

Countries such as Britain and the USA worked very hard to frustrate Marcus Garvey, one of the leaders of the back to Africa movement. In 1923 the government of Liberia invited the members of universal Negros improvement association to set up an African base in Liberia but these two countries threatened to attack Liberia indeed when a team of technical experts arrived in Liberia in 1824, they were arrested and deported to the USA.

11. Opposition from white American capitalists.

The UNIA was operating in the United States along capitalist lines hence it created stiff competition with the white American capitalists who were determined to assure its failure.

12. Deportation of Marcus Garvey.

The government of USA contributed to the failure of the back to Africa by arresting Marcus Garvey and sentenced him to five years imprisonment, he was later pardoned but deported to Jamaica in 1927 hence ending all hopes of reviving the movement hence ending all hopes of reviving the movement.

13. Mass illiteracy.

The mass illiteracy of the people of African origin was the biggest challenge that faced the back to Africa movement, almost 90% of the black people were illiterate. Thus they were vulnerable to exploitation. Illiteracy made the people of African origin an aware about their political, social and economic rights.

PANAFRICANISM OR THE PAN AFRICAN MOVEMENT/BLACK SOLIDARITY

Pan Africanism refers to the desire for African unity that tries to cultivate the spirit of brotherhood among the black people in the new world.

Pan Africanism originated in America and the Caribbean islands in the early 20^th century.

The movement was formed by the black people initially to stop slave trade.

Pan Africanism was founded by Bladen and later on it was actuated William Sylvester who convened the first pan Africanist conference, these were few representatives from Africa but the majority came from America.

AIMS OF PAN AFRICANISM

The movement also aimed at bringing unity and solidarity among the people of African origin. Unity was an important ingredient in the struggle to regain the fundamental rights of the black people.

The movement aimed at fighting against colonialism in Africa and ensures that Africans are given their self rule. The Africans were subjected to colonial rule for a long period where they were exposed to all sorts of exploitation and oppression.

Rise consciousness of the black people towards elimination of their inferiority complex which would restore respect and freedom to black people. The supporters of the movement claimed that the formation of a strong state will lead to the elevation of the African race.

The movement wanted to liberate Africans from slave trade and slavery. Under slavery the people of African origin were subjected to all evils. They were denied the right to education, right to freedom of expression, right to marry and the right to own property.

The movement also wanted to regain the fundamental rights of the people of African origin. They were denied right to education, right to freedom of expression, right to marry and own property.

Raise consciousness of the black people towards formation of the united states of Africa which would have restore respects and freedom to the black people. The supporters of the movement claimed that the formation of a strong African state will lead the elevation of the African race.

The movement aimed at empowering the black people economically by establishing economic ventures and creating employment for the millions of people of African origin that were living in poverty.

CONTRIBUTION OF PANAFRICANISM TO THE RISE OF AFRICAN NATIONALISM

The pan Africanist movement united all Africans from all works of life to oppose colonialism. The common desire for independence was a unifying factor that terminated tribal interest, by uniting all Africans it became easy to oppose colonial rule.

The movement provided a forum or a platform where Africans could discuss the grievance caused by colonialism in all the congresses of the movement, the people of African origin discussed about implementing the spirit of oneness among all the black people all over the world.

The movement awakened the interests of the Africans to fight for independence. During the conferences of the pan African movement, members discussed a wide range of issues such as racial discrimination, unfair taxation policies and land alienation which they were facing under colonial rule.

The pan African movement played a big role in the rise of African nationalism because it stressed that; the fight for political independence by the Africans was a necessary step towards complete economic and social emancipation.

The pan African congress chose total liberation in their struggle for independence from Manchester; the activities of the movement were shifted to Africa following the independence of Ghana in 1957. The capital city of Ghana, Accra became the head quarters of pan Africanism where Kwame Nkrumah spear headed the independence of many African countries.

The movement represented the African continent in the international conferences especially in the United Nations wanted to ensure that all countries attain independence through the peaceful means.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF PAN-AFRICANISM

The development of pan Africanism took place through summoning or holding various conferences in various countries of Europe. These conferences aimed at uniting people of African origin all over the world.

These conferences included the following;

THE PAN AFRICAN CONGRESS THAT TOOK PLACE IN LONDON IN 1900.

This was the first conference which took place in London. The meeting was summoned by Henry Sylvester Williams from the West Indies. It was at this conference that Doctor Du Bois was introduced and he came to dominate the movement for almost half of the century. The objects of the congress included the following;

• • To provide a forum for people of African origin to protest against European exploitation and oppression.
  • To bring all people of African origin into closer relationship, this was so crucial in the struggle for their fundamental rights.
  • To appeal to the people to end the colonization and exploitation of the African people.

This conference was able to lay the foundation for future solidarity of all people of African origin and it planted the spirit of oneness of Africa all over the world.

THE PARIS CONFERENCE OF 1919.

This was the second pan African movement which was held in Paris. This conference was chaired by Du Bois. This conference took place at a time when the Paris Peace Conference is taking place. This was the conference which was signed after the First World War. In this conference the following points were made

• • The members recommended that an international law should be formed to protect the Africans.
  • The Africans should be guaranteed the right to education.
  • The conference also supported the abolition of slave trade and capital punishment.

THE LONDON CONFERENCE OF 1921.

This was the third conference that was held in three sessions, that is in London, Brussels and Paris. The conference emphasized the need to form political parties and the need for international harmony. In 1944, the students‟ crew and politicians, led by George Pardmore, Wallace Jackson and Jomo Kenyatta formed a pan African federation.

The fourth pan African congress.

The fourth congress was held in London and Lisbon in 1923. The members in this congress maintained that the Africans should have a right to self government.

The fifth pan African congress.

This congress took place in New York in 1927; this was the last pan African congress which was directly linked to Dr. Bois and George Pardmore. There were conflicts which emerged between Marcus Garvey and Dr Bois. Marcus Garvey one of the founders of back to Africa movement wanted to deport all people of African origin back to Africa while Dr. Du Bois preferred to fight from exile.

The sixth pan African congress.

The pan African federation convened a radical congress in 1945 in Manchester. This was a Manchester conference of 1945. This conference was inspired by President Woodrow Wilson of the United States who declared the principle of self determination.

This was the conference that demanded complete independence for the Africans. After the conference the intellectuals went back to Africa to mobilize the people for independence instead of remaining in Europe.

The conference was attended by a number of nationalist leaders from Africa such as Jomo Kenyatta, Kwame Nkrumah, Nnandi Azikiwe, Peter Abrahams and Wallace Jackson. The members at this conference adopted the following resolutions

• • The members demanded complete independence from colonial rule, they argued that “We demand black African autonomy independence, so far and no further than it is possible in this one world for groups of people to rule themselves”.
  • They also demanded universal suffrage and condemned colonialism

NOTE: The African nationalists such as kwame Nkrumah, kamuzu Banda and Nnandi Azikiwe studied in the United States of America thus they had been enlightened about them to take an active role in the pan African movement.

CONTRIBUTION OF AMERICAN CIVIL WAR TO THE RISE OF BLACK AMERICAN NATIONALISM

It led to the abolition of slavery and slave trade – it was during the civil war in 1863 as Lincoln (1962) stipulated that on January 1963 in those states that were still engaging in rebellion “slaves would be free forever”, hence it became the beginning point of the black American to increase their campaign for freedom.

It led to the rise of black elites – black elites were few black American slaves that were able to get education from various regions and used their education to organize their fellow African to fight against slavery eg. Marcus Gurvey, William Sylvester, Fredrick Douglass etc.

Formation of anti slavery movement – it led to the formation of many volunteers non-government organization that had to fight against slavery and slave trade eg. Black solidarity and Back to African movement, the Black partner party etc.

It helped many black American slaves who were in plantations to be free and to acquire education which later helped them to emancipate themselves from slavery. This was the result of the Confiscation Bill of August 1961 when slave trade was abolished which ordered the seizure of all property including slaves.

It led to the formation of the emancipation league as it was called for mass uprising of slaves in southern America with their slogan which state that “It is better to die as a free man than to live as slaves” where many slaves engaged in the movement and finally became free.

The American civil war created opportunity for many black American to join the USA army – this helped them to fight for their liberation as all the black soldiers fought on the side of the union during the American civil war and also the skill obtained helped/used to liberate other black slaves in plantations and mines.

The American civil war led to the formation of the Pro-Republican Party in the South America with their objective of liberating black American from slavery which contributed much to the rise of the black American nationalism.

The American civil war paved the way for the rise of organizations to fight slavery which started to make economic sabotage, destroying factory and plantation of the capitalist, thus it provided lesson to the capitalist to be careful in future if they continue exploiting the slaves.

FORMS OF BLACK AMERICAN STRUGGLE

1. PASSIVE RESISTACE

It was opted by the black American had reached in the New world because they had no way and means to fight/resist. This method included Escaping from the plantation, mines and slave camps (slaves disappeared), pretending illness and working slowly.

2. OPEN RESISTANCE

The black American applied this method after getting and being used to the environment of the new world. It involved direct confrontation with the slave masters. It included Killing slave masters and plantation supervisors, refusing to work by making open strikes and riots, committing suicide, Burning plantations, destroying machines, destroying mines and destroying productive forces like hoe.

3. ACTIVE OR ARMED STRUGGLE

It began especially after American war of independence of 1776 after the Virginia conference of 1661 which declared that “all black slaves should be slaves for life”. This armed struggle took place in 1687 in Dominican Republican in Brazil which included the use of weapons like guns and military technique inform of Guerilla warfare and direct military campaigns.

4. ANTI SLAVERY MOVEMENT/CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT

These were formed after the American war of independence. They used dialogue and peaceful means to achieve their goals of fighting slavery. These include Back to Africa movement, Black solidarity, Black Partner Party etc.

THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENTS IN THE USA

The civil rights movements was an ideological and political movement of people of African origin in America that demanded for total democracy which allow the citizens of America both black and white to participate fully in the economic, political and social affairs of the country.

The movement was advocating for equal rights and fair treatments to all people irrespective of their races. The main architects of this movement were Martin Luther King and Malcolm X.

THE OBJECTIVES OF THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENTS

1. To end all kinds of discrimination.

The main objective of the movement was to end all kinds of discrimination and segregation of people of African origin in America. The people of African origin had been subjected to political, social and economic forms of discrimination and segregation.

2. Create an ideal American society.

Create an ideal American society by enforcing the implementation of the American constitution to grant people of African origin the same human rights as accorded to the white people.

3. Equal employment opportunities.

To enforce the government to grant equal employment opportunities to people of African origin were denied employment especially on federal projects and departments.

4. Right to vote.

To enforce the government to grant people of African origin the right to vote and to be voted for. This was one of the major objectives of the civil rights movement because the people of African origin had been segregated from affairs of their country.

5. Developing unity and solidarity.

The movement aimed at developing unity and solidarity of all the people of African origin in America. The movement wanted to sensitize people of African origin to identify their position in the society and their vision and direction.

6. Basic needs

The movement also wanted to ensure that the people of African origin are given their basic needs. They summarized their demands in the final point, “we need land, bread, housing and education” the blank panther party suggested that if businesses and the government did not provide for full employment, the community should take over the means of production.

7. Stamp out slavery.

The movement wanted to stamp out slavery and improve the working conditions of people of African origin. After the civil war, slavery was abolished but people of African origin were still working in conditions that were not different from those of slavery.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENTS

The civil rights movement registered great success in fighting for the rights of black people in the United States of America. It marked a turning point in the economic, political and social wellbeing of the black people.

The people of African origin or black people were given the right to vote and to be voted for political positions in the United States. For example, they should be governors of the state, mayors of cities, congress representatives, ambassadors and military commanders and presidents.

The USA government recognized that positive actions were needed to improve the opportunities of the black people in the United States. The government decided that public and private institutions that employed black people should be considered in terms of tax concession.

The black people are also entitled to welfare benefits as much as the whites. These benefits included unemployment benefits, housing subsidies and state scholarships.

Methods used in the Struggle

In defiance to segregation, discrimination and denial of civil rights, African-American activists adopted a combined strategy of mass action that typified the movement from 1960.

1. The use of boycotts. 

African Americans rejected public services like buses, restaurants and stores where they were segregated. For instance, after an African American woman, Rosa Parks, had been arrested on December 1, 1955 because she refused to get up out of her seat for a white person to sit down on a bus on Montgomery, Alabama, a boycott of Montgomery buses was started.

2. Sit-ins campaigns. 

By this technique African Americans gathered in facilities where segregation against them was done. The protesters were encouraged to dress well, sit quietly, and occupy every seat of such services like restaurants, parks, beaches, libraries and theatres. Fr example, in July 1958, the NAACP Youthful Council sponsored sit-ins at the lunch counter of a Dockum Drug Store in Wichita, Kansas.

3. Freedom Rides. 

The rides were journeys organised by civil rights activists who rode interstate buses into segregated southern USA, in order to challenge segregated buses. The tactic was to force for interracial pair sitting on adjoining seats in segregated buses. The first Freedom Ride began in 1961 led by James Farmer. With 13 riders, the ride left Washington, D.C. on 4/5/1961, and was scheduled to arrive in New Orleans on May 17 where a civil rights rally was planned.

4. Street marching and demonstrations. 

The marches were organised by civil rights organisations to reveal the injustices suffered by African Americans and push the government to grant them equal rights. For example, in 1963, civil rights activists, Philip Randolph and Bayard Rustin organised what came to be known as The Great March on Washington. The estimated participants varied from 200,000 to 300,000. The purpose of the march was to advocate for civil and economic rights for African Americans. At the march, Martin Luther King Jr., standing in front of the Lincoln Memorial, delivered the historic “I have a Dream” speech calling for an end of racism.

5. Violent methods. 

Afro-American organisations like the Black Power and Black Panther movements used armed self-defence against oppressive discriminative laws like Jun Crow Laws, the whites’ terrorist organisations – the Ku Klux Klan and police that brutally attacked the blacks. The movements aimed at protecting civil rights activists against brutal acts like lynching, beatings and assassinations.

6. Open public rallies and meetings. 

Rallies and mass meetings mobilised mass public support and displayed blacks’ strength and demands. This was an active strategy mostly used by Malcolm X and Martin Luther King Jr. One of the most remembered rally was of 1963 attended by 200,000 to 300,000 people and on which Martin Luther King Jr. Gave the historic “I have a Dream” speech that called for the end of racism in America. Among the demands aired out in the rally were full civil rights laws, fair employment, decent housing, the right to vote and adequate integrated education.

7. Through legal actions (petitions). 

African American activists through their organisations like the National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People (NAACP) delivered petition to courts of law and congress seeking for legal intervention against unfair treatment and laws against African Americans. For example the NAACP reported a case against school segregation. Afterwards, the court ruled that segregated schools were unconstitutional.

8. Mass media. 

African Americans published own: magazines like “The Crisis” established by the NAACP with William Edward Du Bois as its editor. Mass media helped in raising African American consciousness of their rights and raised the spirit and mobilised them for civil rights struggle. They also spread the news for African American concerns far.

9. Use of art. 

Numerous songs and popular cultural expressions associated with African American revival appeared at the time of fighting for civil rights. For example in 1968, African American artist James Brown released a song “Say It Loud — I’m Black and I’m Proud.” Such works inspired and revived African Americans’ self-determination and dignity.

Rosa Louise McCauley Parks (4/2/1913 – 24/10/2015) was an activist in the Civil Right Movement whom the US Congress called the first lady of civil rights and the mother of the freedom movement. Parks was at the centre of the Montgomery bus boycott to resist bus segregation.

On December 1, 1955, in Montgomery, Alabama, Rosa Parks refused to obey bus driver James F. Blake’s order to give up her seat to a white passenger, after the whites-only section was filled. Parks was arrested and charged with a violation of segregation law of the Montgomery City code.

This stirred the Montgomery bus boycott that lasted for 381 days that eventually succeeded when segregation in public buses was made unconstitutional. She became an international icon of resistance to racial segregation. She organised and collaborated with civil rights leaders, including Edgar Nixon and Martin Luther King Jr.

Police preventing marchers in demanding their rights

Achievement of the Civil Right Movement

The civil rights movement was a heroic episode in American history. The movement witnessed the passage of major federal legislation in the 1960s. From the late 1950s the following achievements were attained:

1. The Civil Rights bill of 1963. 

This was submitted by President F. D. Kennedy to the congress. The bill was a legal push for equal citizenship rights to African Americans. It formed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 that was passed by President Johnson. To add on that, Kennedy appointed the USA’s first African American ambassador.

2. The Civil Rights Act of 1964. 

In 1964, President Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act that expressly banned discrimination based on race, colour. religion, sex, or national origin in employment practices and public facilities such as schools, workplaces and restaurants.

3. The Voting Rights Act of 1965. 

Pressure by civil rights activist, pushed president Johnson to introduce the Voting Rights Act (1965) to try and make sure that African Americans exercised their right to vote. The Act restored and protected voting rights for minorities.

4. Right to own or purchase property. 

President Johnson followed up the Voting Rights Act (1965) with another Civil Rights Act, that is, the Fair Housing Act of 1968, which made it illegal to discriminate in selling property or letting accommodation.

5. Abolition of racial segregation in schools in 1954. 

In 1954, the United States Supreme Court ruled out that it was unconstitutional for public schools to be segregated by race. That is the court rejected separate white and coloured school system.

6. Law against job discrimination. 

In June 1964, President Johnson signed into law a bill that outlawed job-discrimination in both public and private sectors. The law also authorized creation of a new agency, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) to check on the vice of job discrimination.

7. It raised African American self-confidence. 

They acquired confidence in their ability to organize and effect political change. They gained more of a sense in black pride, cultural identity and strength, notably in the fields of music, dance, film, and sports where they excelled over the whites with men like Muhammad Au, the world boxing champion.

8. Rise in leadership ranks. 

As success to the civil rights struggles, African Americans have won equal political rights in political field. Some have served in higher government offices. Prominent figures include Collin Powel, who became the African American chief of staff of USA army and led that army in the Gulf war of 1990-1991 and later became the first African American Secretary of States. Condoleezza Rice became the second black and first woman secretary of state of the USA. Above all in 2008, Barrack Hussein Obama became a more celebrated history maker when he was elected the first African American president of USA.

9. Consolidated unity. 

Civil rights movements like the Black Nationalism, Black Power Movement and their leaders like Malcolm X and Martin Luther King won massive rallying unity and support from African Americans and some white sympathisers to civil rights cause from their inspirational speeches and mobilisation and strategies like boycotts and sit-ins.

Putting into laws the civil rights was not a guarantee that African Americans would automatically be respected and treated equally. There was bitter white hostility to the reforms, and the problem was to make sure that the Acts were carried out. With all efforts racial segregation and discrimination against African Americans and other minorities persists to date in America.

Problems facing the Civil Rights Movements

The successes achieved by civil rights movement passed through thick and thin. Several hardships had to be overcome to attain success.

1. The Ku Klux Klan. 

The Klan began as a secret society formed on Christmas Eve of 1865, in Tennessee to intimidate African Americans’ fight for equality. They carried out campaigns of threats and terror against the blacks. Lynching, beatings, and feathering became commonplace. Many Afro-American activists like Medgar Evers, Malcolm X and Martin Luther King Jr. died of the Ku Klux Klan.

2. Divisions among civil rights activists. 

They differed in strategy and ideology. While some like the Black Panther Party called for use of violent means, others like Martin Luther King Jr. advocated for non-violent methods. Ideologically, as some like Malcolm X wanted the creation of independent black state, others like King wanted integration with the whites.

3. The hand of American government. 

The government particularly in southern states passed laws such as the “Jim Crow laws” to maintain the whites’ supremacy and segregation. These severe laws restricted African American people’s rights; depriving them of voting; pinning them to worst and lowest-paid jobs; excluding them from schools attended by whites.

4. The  role  of  the  American  capitalists.  

The  capitalist  in  America  sabotaged  African Americans’ efforts to win civil rights. They influenced the government to pass decisions against African Americans. The whites especially in southern states wanted the People of African Origin to remain low class people tied in slavery and serve them as cheap labour.

5. The economic weakness of African Americans. 

The people of African Origin in the US were largely economically poor that they failed to raise enough resources to financially support the civil rights movements’ activities like mass rallies and publications. Their low financial status made them depend on the whites hence could not easily fight segregation.

6. The small number of African Americans. 

Compared to the whites, African Americans were few that were easily absorbed by the majority whites. Their small number made them weak to stand firm against inequality. It as well made it difficult for US government (congress) to pass decisions in their favour as the whites were the majority voters.

7. The low education status of majority African Americans. 

African Americans were mostly denied education and the few educated, mostly received poor education. Due to this their awareness and consciousness was kept low that they could hardly know their rights and stand firm to protest inequality.

8. Racial segregation and discrimination still persists in America. 

This is worse in southern states where African Americans still face poor reception in social services like education and health and public accommodations like houses and buses. Worse, even during the presidency of Barrack Obama, African Americans suffered open discrimination and violence with open police shootings that killed some of them.

A 17-year-old civil rights demonstrator attacked by a police dog

Change of attitude in Favour of Civil Rights

Starting from the late 1940s American politicians started changing their outlook towards African Americans. As a result of internal and external pressure, this shift in position began with President Harry Truman, then his successors notably, F. D. Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson who showed willingness to push for equal rights for all American citizens.

1. The Cold War. 

This was a major factor for the US government to support civil rights legislations. In the Cold War, the USSR accused the USA for its hypocrisy in portraying itself the “leader of the free world,” when so many of its citizens, the African American were subjected to severe racial discrimination and violence. To silence the communist accusations, the US government had to grant civil rights to African Americans.

2. Excluding African American from top jobs was waste of talent and expertise. Expansion of African American elite and middle class mainly in northern states where a number of African Americans were granted chance to have good education and skills was a way to success for civil rights. Their talents were usefully needed to serve the United States.

3. Democratic assertions. 

The USA could hardly claim to be genuinely democratic country and leader of the “free world” when 10 per cent of its population were denied voting and other rights. This gave her foes like the USSR a chance to condemn her as a “consistent oppressor of under-privileged peoples”. The American government wanted that excuse removed. The increasing pressure from civil rights campaigns.

4. The period after the World War II witnessed an upsurge in pursuit for civil rights among African Americans. It was important for that reason to do something to calm the African American population, who were becoming more vocal in their demands for civil rights.

5. Rapid growth of nationalism in Asia and Africa. 

In early 1940s India and Indonesia were on the point of gaining independence and as well liberation campaigns were increasingly growing stronger in Africa. These new states would turn against the USA and move towards communism if American whites continued their unfair treatment of African Americans.

6. Pressure from international bodies. 

These bodies, notably, the United Nations of which African and Asian countries were members attacked the US for its practices of discrimination and violence against African Americans and other minorities. In respect of human rights, the UN pressed US government to protect minority groups by granting them civil rights.

7. Some politicians and a section of the white populace were worried by their conscience; They felt that it was not morally right to treat fellow human beings in such an unfair way. This group of politicians pushed for legislation of civil rights to support the efforts of African American activists.

8. The hard long struggle produced some desirable fruits. 

The zenith was reached in 2008 when Barrack Hussein Obama was elected first African American president. This is something which one could not expect in those days when discrimination was severe. Though no one of the profound civil rights activists like Dr. William Edward Du Bois, Martin Luther King Junior and Malcolm X was alive to celebrate the remarkable achievement, it will stay unforgettable to all people of African origin who had to endure segregation, discrimination, exploitation and humiliation in the hands of the whites for centuries. Indeed it opened the new chapter for black people’s history and the history of America in general.

More than at any time in our nation’s  history, we are all Americans.

Sample — Revision Questions

1. Explain six reasons behind the rise of Atlantic Slave Trade. (NECTA 2014)

2. Analyse six problems encountered by the People of African Origin in the New World (NECTA 2013).

3. Examine six reasons that led to the enslavement of Africans to the America and the Caribbean during the mercantile period. (NECTA — Private Candidates 2015)

4. Compare and contrast Black Solidarity and Pan-Africanism. (Give three similarities and three differences). (NECTA 2016)

5. Explain three prejudices which faced People of African Origin in the New World and show their three legal struggles which brought about equal education. (NECTA 2017)

6. Account for the origin and problems of the People of African Origin in the New World.

7. Trace the genesis of the people of African origin in the New World.

8. Assess the historical essence of the People of African Origin in the New World.

9. To what extent did the Back to Africa achieved its stated goals

10. Explain  six  factors  which  hindered  the  success  of  the  “Back  to  Africa  Movement.” (NECTA 2015)

11. Discuss the roles of Marcus Garvey towards the struggle for liberating the Blacks.

12. Discuss the relationship between Black solidarity, Pan Africanism and the Back to Africa movement

13. Account for the origin and objectives of the Civil rights movement in USA.

14. The Civil Rights Movement by the Blacks in America was a struggle for genuine reasons. Account for 6 hardships faced during the struggle.

15. Discuss how the KU KLAX KLAN and other reasons hampered the struggle for civil rights in America

16. Appraise six achievements of the Civil Rights Movements in the USA (NECTA 2012)

17. Examine the mechanism used by people of African origin in their struggle for liberation in America.

18. Analyse the problems faced by the People of African Origin in the struggle for equality.

19. Account for the success of the People of African Origin in the New World in the struggle for liberation.

20. Account for change of attitude towards African Americans in the USA